History and Structure of Policing Essay - 935 Words

Many people know of the police officers of today’s world and that it is their job to enforce the laws set by their government, but not many people know the history of your typical everyday United States police officer or how they came about. The idea for neither your everyday police officer nor his or her department they work for or how a police department operates, originated in the United States. Over the years though America has made changes and adapted its system over the years to make it more suitable for its countries beliefs and practices. Police forces or Law enforcers have been used for centuries all around the world but America took particular interest in the English’s policing system. America’s policing ideas and process began†¦show more content†¦It was a safe haven for bandits and outlaws, it was so large and unknown, making in near impossible to enforce the laws of the land. Taking the law into one’s own hands or vigilantism was common for those trying to take advantage of the spread out hand of the law throughout the United States. In America’s larger cities law enforcement came about earlier. In 1658, paid watchmen were hired by the city of New York. The city of New York constructed the first neighborhood station in 1731. Many American communities followed their lead. New York’s Law enforcement was separated into night and day forces, hired to be like the â€Å"Bobbies†, they were combined into the New York Police Department. The first woman police officer ca me from the Los Angela’s Police Department in 1910; her name was Alice Stebbins Wells. By 1915 a U.S. census showed that there were 25 cities that employed police officers of the female gender. The Postal Act of 1829 made the FBI a national investigation service. Before that is was the Bureau of Investigation, where President Teddy Roosevelt promoted the use of the call-box system of telephones. It allowed citizens to report crimes and made it possible for officers to quickly call for assistance. A dark day and age for not only the American people but also the American Law Enforcement agency began in the 1920’s when there was a constitutional prohibition against the selling,Show MoreRelatedAmerican Security and Police Modeled After The English968 Words   |  4 Pagescopied some of the fundamental techniques. England helped America guide the policing system to be more effective. Such as something so basic as the title Sheriffs come from the word shire reeves, which is from England (The History of Policing, 2014, p.3). English plays an extremely essential role in American policing. America adopted the English common law; the high importance placed on individual privileges, the court structure, and numerous methods of punishment, alongside with local authority ofRead MorePolice1142 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿POLICE: HISTORY Throughout the history of civilization, societies have sought protection for their members and possessions. In early civilizations, members of one s family provided this protection. Richard Lundman has suggested that the development of formal policing resulted from a process of three developmental stages. The first stage involves informal policing, where all members of a society share equally in the responsibility for providing protection and keeping order. The second stage,Read MoreSir Robert Peel and American Policing962 Words   |  4 PagesSir Robert Peel and American Policing Kristi Pursley CJA/214 August 15, 2011 Don Redden Sir Robert Peel and American Policing The history of policing dates back several thousand years ago when there was no order or peace and inhumane acts upon citizens was the norm with religious, political, or military police acting as the law. Policing was unstable and unorganized. Citizens took the law into their own hands and served as judge, jury, and executioner. There was not such a thing as beingRead MoreThe History of Police Agencies and Different Types of Law Enforcement877 Words   |  4 PagesDevelopment of Police Agencies: Policing in the United States has mainly been based and expanded on the ideas of English way of policing. The English way of policing has not only been used as the basis for American policing but it has also been used to commence an era of evolving police agencies. In its early years, policing in the United States was largely regarded as a civic duty or responsibility of community members. The appointed officers were neither trained nor paid for their servicesRead MoreRoles and Responsibilities of Public Policing vs. Private Security1652 Words   |  7 PagesRoles and Responsibilities of Public Policing vs. Private Security ASJ-502 February 6, 2012 Abstract This paper explores the similarities and differences of public police and private security throughout history. How the criminal justice system and public police and private security are linked to each other. The essential policies that have been developed and how these police have assisted in the cooperation between police and private security. Finally, the need for a comprehensive securityRead MoreThe Evolution of Technology in Policing647 Words   |  3 Pageshelp legitimize the law, policing as a formal social institution is young. The history of the formal police system stems back to the 19th century and Sir Robert Peels first force of bobbies in London. Since Peels reforms, modern policing has evolved to include many different models that include community policing. The Peel reforms ensured that English, and then American, police forces reflected the goals of the judiciary and legislative branches of government. Policing went from a patronage systemRead MoreEssay on Role of Sir Robert Peel in Starting Community Policing1500 Words   |  6 PagesSir Robert Peel Policing has been a part of America for many decades. In fact, policing was known to exist prior to 1066, the year of the Normandy Invasion of Britain. Throughout the years policing has been a complicated and ongoing progress. The people of England did not have a stabilized policing standard and were often responsible for protecting and serving themselves. As early as the 1600s the Colonial America introduced the English styles of policing; citizens were responsible forRead MoreThe Evolution Of Law Enforcement Essay1279 Words   |  6 PagesThe Evolution of Law Enforcement All over the history of human evolution, people have sought a way to protect their lives and property. During the Babylonian period, members of families suggested the ideas of having a group from the community to maintain safety and order. Normally during that time, protection and social control were the major responsibility of that group. In that time, people requested the eldest and strongest males of the tribes to take part in the first security force of communityRead MoreThe Role Of Policing During The United States Essay934 Words   |  4 Pagesfactors that contribute to today’s American policing. Once such factor that contribute tremendously to today’s policing came in 1829 when Sir Robert Peel’s concept of policing came into effect. This would change the way policing would be performed in not only England, but the United States (U.S) and around the world. Another huge factor that impacts policing is the relationship the U.S. Government has with polic ing. These factors affect every policing organization in the U.S. Sir Robert Peel hadRead MoreThe Policing Function At The Local, State, And Federal Organizational Levels Essay1486 Words   |  6 PagesIn this paper I would be identifying, compare, and contrast the policing function at the local, state, and federal organizational levels. I would be Analyzing how the organizational, management, administration, and operational functions at these three organizational levels are similar or different and why. Also I would be identifying the leadership characteristics and responsibilities pertaining to each organizational level. Numerous police agency’s and police officials work on a distinctive local

Gender Differences Between Men And Women Essay - 2523 Words

The â€Å"male norm† is an important concept for understanding women’s history, gender history, and the history of sexuality in classical Athens. Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe, explains the importance of studying women, as well as studying gender. Historians studying gender â€Å"note that what are usually described as the â€Å"biological† differences between men and women are themselves influenced by ideas about gender, with a single polarity (man/woman) so strong in western culture that individuals born with ambiguous genitalia are generally simply assigned to one category or another (Wiesner 3).† Within this view, it ultimately predisposes sex rather than the other way around, which means there is no such thing as true sex difference, only gender difference. Historians have also contemplated what gender itself means and about how past societies have intended their perceptions of what it means to be male or female. This allowed them to disting uish differences between physical sex differences or biological differences between men and women, and how gender has socially constructed differences. Studying the differences of gender allows us to understand the history of the â€Å"male norm† in classical Athens. Intersectionality is another important concept when studying the â€Å"male norm.† The oxford dictionary defined Intersectionality as the interconnected nature of social categorization such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creatingShow MoreRelatedGender Differences Between Men And Women1185 Words   |  5 Pagescontroversial and intriguing at the same time. This study approached the hypothesis of gender differences between men and women in spiritual well-being. The study used the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Ellison, 1983) and assessed 75 college students in the survey. The study resulted in data that confirmed the hypothesis that men and women do not hav e any significant differences in spiritual well-being. â€Æ' Gender Differences in Spiritual Well-Being The examination of spiritual well-being has been a long andRead MoreGender Differences Between Men And Women1058 Words   |  5 PagesGender differences between men and women Abstract Gender difference can be expressed in many ways. In our daily life, there are many phenomenon can be explained by gender difference. For example, man always like to pay attention to political news, but women focus on gossip news; Women like shopping very much but men never want to go shopping; for the same thing men and women will make different evaluations. These entire phenomenons are because of gender difference. How the gender difference showRead MoreGender Differences Between Men And Women1417 Words   |  6 Pagesto analyze gender differences between men and women in history. Whether these gender differences exist in the way in which they communicate, influence, or lead, men and women have always been viewed as different and unique sets of people. These differences have, to a certain extent, put black mens in the environment at a disadvantage because of their perceived inferiority to the world, mainly due to historical gender inequalities, discrimination of racism. Especially, young black mens. I do believeRead MoreGender Differences Between Men And Women1992 Words   |  8 PagesThere is much debate on the issue of personality differences between men and women, some believe that that men and women are vastly different, others only slightly and the rest firmly believe that we are no different from each other at all. A large quantity of research has been conducted in order to try to find this out. Firstly, it is imperative that gender and personality have a clear definition to prevent confusion. Gender is a psychological perception of masculinity and femininity and can beRead MoreGender Differences Between Men And Women892 Words   |  4 PagesRegardless of the standard definition, gender differences cause the meaning of attractiveness to vary among society. Cultural influences suggest that the â€Å"beauty is in the eye of the beholder† is false. Aside from the specific guidelines towards what men and women perceive, men take attractiveness mor e serious than do women. It has been proven that both men and women compare body image and asymmetry when determining someone’s attractiveness, or lack there of. However, there are certain cases whereRead MoreGender Differences Between Men And Women Essay1533 Words   |  7 Pagesinteractions between men and women, yet I have had difficulty pin-pointing the exact differences. Obviously, the military utilized abrasive and assertive speech, and I correlated it to professional differences rather than gender differences. However, learning the subconscious tendencies of communication polarities with men and women, and introspectively looking back at past interactions, forced me to realize it may be just as much a gender gap as a professional one. I always wondered why some men enjoyedRead MoreGender Differences Between Men And Women1861 Words   |  8 Pagescentury, western culture frequently dismisses the concept of men and women holding highly distinguishable traits that denote respective functions in society. Such movements insinuate that the objective of absolute equality between the sexes has been met, despite history presenting an entirely contrasting view of gender roles that have perpetuated inequality in the minds of mankind. In order for one to fully comprehend the continual battle that women have fought against the stereotypes that history has triedRead MoreGender Differences Between Women And Men Speak981 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Sex Differences† is an essay written by a professor of linguistics named Ronald Macaulay. In the essay, he pointed out that there were no gender differences regarding to language development. He talked about various stereotypes about how men and women speak. He also explains i n depth about how social environment made an impact on the talking between men and women. He also concluded that those linguists who still believe in that theory only continue to do so even if what they found in their researchRead MoreThe Gender Pay Gap Measures The Earning Differences Between Women And Men940 Words   |  4 PagesThe gender pay gap measures the earning differences between women and men in paid employment in the labour market. It is one of many indicators of gender inequality in a country, when examining labour market participation in terms of gender (EC 2007). Though we try to fight for gender equality in the workplace, us females still face many difficulties. While they’ve made strides in breaking through the â€Å"glass ceiling,† we often have many other challenges, things such as sexism, discrimination, sometimesRead MoreChinua Achebe s Things Fall Apart Gender Stereotype And The Difference Between Men And Women1150 Words   |  5 Pagesnovel Th ings Fall Apart gender stereotype and the difference between men and women, and also how women are treated compared to men, are presented very boldly throughout the whole novel. Showing these stereotypes and maybe certain rights that were provided for one gender and not the other is important when it comes to understanding the novel more because it shows how things were in villages like Umuofia during the time (but mostly before) when Christian missionaries and white men had taken over, and showing

India Child marriage Free Essays

Child marriage in India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Small child brides in India Child marriage is a common practice in many countries around the world, however it is especially prevalent in India, where more than one third of all child brides live. [1] According to UNICEF, 47% of girls are married by 18 years of age, and 18% are married by 15 years of age. [2] These marriages are often performed without the consent of the girls involved in the marriage. We will write a custom essay sample on India Child marriage or any similar topic only for you Order Now Indian law has made child marriage illegal, but it is still widely practiced across the nation. The highest rates are seen particularly in the rural states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. [3] It affects both boys and girls, but statistics show that girls are far more likely to be forced into a child marriage than boys; however the percentage of girls forced into child marriage in India has declined in recent years. Many consider child marriage to be a human rights violation, resulting in death, health problems, poverty, violence, and lack of education. Contents Definitions of child marriage UNICEF defines child marriage as a formal marriage or union before 18 years of age. [4] UN Women defines child marriage as a forced marriage before 18 years of age because they believe children under age 18 are incapable of giving their consent. [5] History of child marriage Political turmoil Child marriage, also known as Bal Vivaha, is believed to have begun during the medieval ages of India. At this time, the political atmosphere was turbulent and ruled by Delhi Sultans in an absolute monarchy government. The sultans had an extreme commitment to their religion and forced many to convert, causing socio-cultural unrest, and Hindu women suffered the most. These days of the Delhi Sultans produced practices such as child marriage and lowered the status of women even further. They invented the ill omen of giving birth to a female baby and believed that young unmarried girls caused disaster. Child marriage became a widespread cultural practice with various reasons to justify it, and many marriages were performed while the girl was still an infant. [6] Military alliances Indian feudalistic society became present, where characteristics such as honor, rivalry, and animosity were important qualities to possess, and because of this, families and kingdoms created strong military alliances to preserve or destroy power between them. To ensure the alliance was upheld by both sides, each family exchanged a young member of their household who was reared and educated at the other family’s estate. The children were the assurance that the alliance between the families was honored, but in case it wasn’t enough, the families made a marriage arrangement to deepen the alliance even further. They believed the marriage wouldn’t work if they waited for the young children to grow up because they could possibly pick someone outside of the alliance. If they performed the marriage while the children were still young and susceptible to their parents’ influence, the children would have no choice but to marry who their parents chose to strengthen the alliance. [7] The caste system The caste system is also believed to have contributed to the growth of child marriage. Castes, which are based on birth and heredity, do not allow two people to marry if they are from different castes. This system was threatened by young people’s emotions and desires to marry outside their caste, so out of necessity, child marriage was created to ensure the caste system continued. [8] Laws against child marriage The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 The Child Marriage Restraint Act, also called the Sarda Act,[9] was a law to restrict the practice of child marriage. It was enacted on April 1, 1930, extended across the whole nation, with the exceptions of the states of Jammu and Kashmir, and applied to every Indian citizen. Its goal was to eliminate the dangers placed on young girls who could not handle the stress of married life and avoid early deaths. This Act defined a male child as 21 years or younger, a female child as 18 years or younger, and a minor as a child of either sex 18 years or younger. The punishment for a male between 18 and 21 years marrying a child became imprisonment of up to 15 days, a fine of 1,000 rupees, or both. The punishment for a male above 21 years of age became imprisonment of up to three months and a possible fine. The punishment for anyone who performed or directed a child marriage ceremony became imprisonment of up to three months and a possible fine, unless he could prove the marriage he performed was not a child marriage. The punishment for a parent or guardian of a child taking place in the marriage became imprisonment of up to three months or a possible fine. [10] It was amended in 1940 and 1978 to continue raising the ages of male and female children. [11] The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 Coming into effect on November 1, 2007, the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA) was put into place to address and fix the shortcomings of the Child Marriage Restraint Act. [12] The change in name was meant to reflect the prevention and prohibition of child marriage, rather than restraining it. [13][14] The previous Act also made it difficult and time consuming to act against child marriages and did not focus on authorities as possible figures for preventing the marriages. [15] This Act kept the ages of adult males and females the same but made some significant changes to further protect the children. Boys and girls forced into child marriages as minors have the option of voiding their marriage up to two years after reaching adulthood, and in certain circumstances, marriages of minors can be null and void before they reach adulthood. All valuables, money, and gifts must be returned if the marriage is nullified, and the girl must be provided with a place of residency until she marries or becomes an adult. Children born from child marriages are considered legitimate, and the courts are expected to give parental custody with the children’s best interests in mind. Any male over 18 years of age who enters into a marriage with a minor or anyone who directs or conducts a child marriage ceremony can be punished with up to two years of imprisonment or a fine. [16] — Latest Judgment Under Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 — It has been held by the Delhi High Court that Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 overrides all personal laws and governs each and every citizen of India– 2012 [Volume No. 3] JCC [Journal of Criminal Cases] Page No. 148 – IN The High Court of Delhi – Hon’ble The Acting Chief Justice ; Hon’ble Mr. Justice Sanjiv Khanna ; Hon’ble Mr. Justice V. K. Shali – Date of Judgment – 27th July, 2012 – Court on Its Own Motion [Lajja Devi] Vs. State – W. P. [Crl. ] No. 338 of 2008 — Smt. Laxmi Devi Anr. Vs. State [GNCT of Delhi] Others – Cril. M. C. No. 100/2011 and Crl. M. A. No. 3737 of 2011 – Maha Dev Vs. State [GNCT of Delhi ] Anr. – W. P. [Crl. ] No. 821 of 2008 and Crl. M. A. No. 8765 of 2008 — Devender @ Babli Vs. State [GNCT of Delhi] Anr. – W. P. [Crl. ] No. 66 of 2010 — Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – section 2[a] – Issue for Consideration – [i] What is the status of marriage under the Hindu Law when one of the parties to the marriage is below the age of 18 years prescribed under Section 5 [iii] of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and Section 2 [a] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, and [ii] When the girl is minor [but the boy has attained the age of marriage as prescribed] whether the husband can be regarded as the lawful guardian of the minor wife and claim her custody in spite of contest and claim by the parents of the girl – what is the effect of Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006. — Held: – The object behind enacting the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 was to cu rb the menace of Child Marriage, which is still prevalent in this country and is most common in rural areas – Child Marriage is such a social evil which has the potentialities of dangers to the life and health of a female child and plays havoc in their lives, who cannot withstand the stress and strains of married life and it leads to early deaths of such minor mothers – It also reflects the chauvinistic attribute of the Indian Society- Even after the passing of the new Act i. e. – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, certain loopholes still remain, the legislations are weak as they do not actually prohibit child marriage . It can be said that though the practice of child marriage has been discouraged by the legislations but it has not been completely banned – Having regard to the legal/statutory position that stands as of now leaves us to answer first part of question No. by concluding that the marriage contracted with a female of less than 18 years o f a male of less than 21 years of age would not be a void marriage but voidable one, which would become valid if no steps are taken by such court has option[s] to order otherwise [Paras 1,25,26,35,40] – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – Section 3 – The girl, if mature, cannot and should be denied her freedom and other wishes should not get negated as of she has no voice and her wishes are of no consequences – The Court while deciding, should also keep in mind that such marriages are voidable and the girl has the right to approach the Court under Section 3 of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 to get the marriage declared void till she attains the age of 20 years. Para 48 ] – Indian Penal Code, 1860 – Section 375 376 – In case the girl is below 16 years, the answer is obvious that the consent does not matter – Offence under Section 376 Indian Penal Code is made out – The charge sheet cannot be quashed on the ground that she was a consenting party – However, there can be special or exceptional circumstances which may require consideration, in cases where the girl even after attaining majority affirms and reiterates her consent. [Para 49] — Indian Penal Code, 1860 – section 375 – Consummation, with the wife below the age of 15 years of age, is an offence under Section 375 – No exception can be made to the said constitutional mandate and the same has to be strictly and diligently enforce – Consent is such case is completely impartial, for consent at such a young age is difficult to conceive and accept – It makes no difference whether the girl is married or not – Personal law applicable to the parties is also immaterial. Para 50 ] — Indian Penal code, 1860 – Section 375 376 – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – Section 3 – If the girl is more than 16 years, and the girl makes a statement t hat she went with her consent and that statement and consent is without any force, coercion or undue influence, the statement could be accepted and the court will be within its power to quash the proceedings under Sections 363 or 376 Indian Penal Code, 1860 – Here again no straight jacket formulae can be applied – The court has to be cautious, for the girl has right to get marriage nullified under Section 3 of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – Attending circumstances including the maturity and understanding of the girl, social background of girl, age of the girl and boy etc. have to be taken into consideration. [Para 51] – Indian Penal Code, 1860 – Section 363/366/376/465/467/494/497/120-B/506 Indian Penal Code – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006- Section 3 – Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 – Section 482 – As per the ossification test, the girl/petitioner No. 1 was found between 17-19 years of age â₠¬â€œ As per the school leaving certificate, she was 17 years of age on the date when the parties solemnised marriage – Since she has given the statement that she married of her own accord to the petitioner no. and was more than 16 years of age, FIR under sections 363/366/376/465/467/494/497/120-B/506 Indian Penal Code registered against the petitioner no. 2 is quashed. — Marriage and Guardianship – In this writ petition, the question is only of validity of marriage and guardianship – Even if the age of the girl is taken as 15 years of age at the time of incident i. e. – 27. 10. 2006, she would be 21 years of age as of now – she has not filed any proceedings for declaring the marriage as void. Therefore, the marriage becomes valid now – The question of guardianship does not arise at this stage as she is major and during the period she was minor she resided at Nirmal Chhaya- Thus, the writ petition is disposed of in the above said terms . — Held: – As per the facts noted in Para 10 above, Shivani @ Deepika at the time of her marriage was less than 16 years of age, her date of birth being 3. 6. 1994 – It was directed that she would remain at Nirmal Chhaya – However, as the per the aforesaid date of birth i. e. – 3. 6. 1994, she has attained majority on 3. 6. 2012 – The petition was filed by Sh. Devender Kumar who married her habeas corpus was claiming her custody. She has attained majority, she is free to go anywhere – with these directions, this petition stands disposed of. [Para 56,57 58] — Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 which now stands repealed by Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006. Para 16] – Thus, irrespective of personal laws under Act child marriages are prohibited. – By declaring that the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 shall apply to all citizens, the parliament has intended to allow the Prohibition of Child Marriage Ac t, 2006 to override the provisions of Hindu Marriage Act to the extent of inconsistencies between these two enactments. Similarly, Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 will override the personal law. [Para 20] – Thus, the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, being a special law, will have overriding effect over the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 to the extent of any inconsistency between the two enactments. For this reason, the court took the view that Section 3 of Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 would have overriding effect over the Hindu Marriage Act and the marriage with a minor child would not be valid but voidable and would become valid if within two years from the date of attaining 18 years in the case of female and 21 years in the case of male, a petition is not filed before the District Court under section 3 [1] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 for annulling the marriage. Similarly, after attaining eighteen years of age in the case of female, or twenty one years of age in the case of a male, the marriage shall become a full-fledged valid marriage. Until such an event of acceptance of the marriage or lapse of limitation period, the marriage shall continue to remain as a voidable marriage. Para 21] – If the marriage is annulled as per Section 3[1] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, the same shall take effect from the date of marriage and, in such an event, in the eye of law there shall be no marriage at all between the parties at any point of time. [Para 22] – Stronger punishments for offences under Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 have been prescribed and that the offences have also been made cognizable and non-bailable but, this does not in any event have any impact on the validity of the child marriage. — It has made a specific provision for void marriages under certain circumstances but did not render all child marriages void. [Para 23] — Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 as noticed above is a secular law and is a latter enactment, which specifically deals with the problem of child marriages. Religion of the contracting party does not matter. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 being a â€Å"Special Act† and being a subsequent legislation, to this extent and in case there is any conflict, will override the provisions of Hindu marriage Act or for that matter nay personal law. [Para 30] — Registration of marriage has still not been made compulsory. Compulsory registration mandates that the age of the girl and the boy getting married have to be mentioned. If implemented properly, it would discourage parents from marrying off their minor children since a written document of their ages would prove the illegality of such marriages. This would probably be able to tackle the sensitive issue of minor marriages upheld by personal laws. Para 38] —- The marriage contracted with a female of less than 18 years or a male of less than 21 years would not be a void marriage but voidable one, which would become valid if no steps are taken by such â€Å"Child† within the meaning of Section 2[a] of the Prohibit ion of Child Marriage Act, 2006 under Section 3 of the said Act seeking declaration of this marriage as void. [Para 40]. CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, commonly known as CEDAW, is an international bill attempting to end discrimination against women. Article 16, Marriage and Family Life, states that all women, as well as men, have the right to choose their spouse, to have the same responsibilities, and to decide on how many children and the spacing between them. This convention states that child marriage should not have a legal effect, all action must be taken to enforce a minimum age, and that all marriages must be put into an official registry. 17] India signed the convention on July 30, 1980 but made the declaration that, because of the nation’s size and amount of people, it’s impractical to have a registration of marriages. [18] Why parents choose child marriage Parents of a child entering into a child marriage are often poor and use the marriage as a way to make her future better, especially in areas with little economic opportunities. During times of war, parents will often marry off their young child to protect her from the conflicts raging around her. Some families still use child marriage to build alliances, as they did during the medieval ages. Statistically, a girl in a child marriage has less of a chance to go to school, and parents think education will undermine her ability to be a traditional wife and mother. Virginity is an important part of Indian culture, and parents want to ensure their daughters do not have pre-marital sex, and child marriage is an easy way to fix this. [19] Consequences of child marriage Early maternal deaths Roza Olyai, an Indian gynecologist and the National Chairperson for the Adolescent Health Committee of the Federation of the Obstetric and Gynecological Societies of India said, â€Å"Early marriage has many medical risks. The reproductive organs are not fully developed. The body is not ready. Teenage mothers, especially those below 18 years, risk hypertensive disorder, eclampsia, pre-eclampsia, and post-partum hemorrhage. â€Å"[20] Girls who marry earlier in life are less likely to be informed about reproductive issues,[21] and because of this, pregnancy-related deaths are known to be the leading cause of mortality among married girls between 15 and 19 years of age. [22] These girls are twice more likely to die in childbirth than girls between 20 and 24 years of age. [23] Girls younger than 15 years of age are 5 times more likely to die in childbirth. [24][25] HIV and AIDS Girls entering into a child marriage are sometimes significantly younger than their husbands, who can be more sexually experienced. Marrying young and being sexually active can increase a girl’s chance of becoming HIV-positive by more than 75%. [26] Infant health Infants born to mothers under the age of 18 are 60% more likely to die in their first year than to mothers over the age of 19. If the children survive, they are more likely to suffer from low birth weight, malnutrition, and late physical and cognitive development. [27][28] Fertility outcomes A study conducted in India by the International Institute for Population Sciences and Macro International in 2005 and 2006 showed high fertility, low fertility control, and poor fertility outcomes data within child marriages. 90. 8% of young married women reported no use of a contraceptive prior to having their first child. 23. 9% reported having a child within the first year of marriage. 17. % reported having three or more children over the course of the marriage. 23% reported a rapid repeat childbirth, and 15. 2% reported an unwanted pregnancy. 15. 3% reported a pregnancy termination (stillbirths, miscarriages or abortions). [29] Fertility rates are higher in slums than in urban areas. [30] Lac k of education and poverty Marrying young is often associated with a lack of education and higher rates of poverty. Because of household responsibilities, pregnancy, and child rearing, young girls do not have access to schooling and income opportunities. [31] Violence Young girls in a child marriage are more likely to experience domestic violence in their marriages as opposed to older women. A study conducted in India by the International Center for Research on Women showed that girls married before 18 years of age are twice as likely to be beaten, slapped, or threatened by their husbands[32] and three times more likely to experience sexual violence. [33] Young brides often show symptoms of sexual abuse and post-traumatic stress. [34] Prevention programs in India Apni Beti, Apna Dhan (ABAD), which translates to â€Å"Our Daughter, Our Wealth,† is one of India’s first conditional cash transfer programs dedicated to delaying young marriages across the nation. In 1994, the Indian government implemented this program in the state of Haryana. On the birth of a mother’s first, second, or third child, they are set to receive 500 rupees, or 11 USD, within the first 15 days to cover their post-delivery needs. Along with this, the government gives 2,500 rupees, or 55 USD, to invest in a long-term savings bond in the daughter’s name, which can be later cashed for 25,000 rupees, or 550 USD, after her 18 birthday. She can only receive the money if she is not married. Anju Malhotra, an expert on child marriage and adolescent girls said of this program, â€Å"No other conditional cash transfer has this focus of delaying marriage†¦ It’s an incentive to encourage parents to value their daughters. â€Å"[35] The International Center for Research on Women will evaluate Apni Beti, Apna Dhan over the course of the year 2012, when the program’s initial participants turn 18, to see if the program, particularly the cash incentive, has motivated parents to delay their daughters’ marriages. â€Å"We have evidence that conditional cash transfer programs are very effective in keeping girls in school and getting them immunized, but we don’t yet have proof that this strategy works for preventing marriage,† said Pranita Achyut, the program manager for Apni Beti, Apna Dhan. â€Å"If Haryana state’s approach proves to be valuable, it could potentially be scaled up to make a significant difference in many more girls’ lives – and not only in India. †[36] How to cite India Child marriage, Essay examples

Cash Flow Estimation and Risk Analysis free essay sample

Then in the early 1960s, when wine sales were expanding rapidly , he joined with his brother Marshall and several other producers to form Robert Montoya, Inc. , which then began an aggressive promotion campaign. Today, its wines are sold throughout the world. The table wine market has matured and Robert Montoya’s wine cooler sales have been steadily decreasing. Consequently, to increase winery sales, management is currently considering a potential new product: a premium varietal red wine using the cabernet sauvignon grape. The new wine is designed to middle-to-upper-income professionals. The new product, Suave Mauve, would be positioned between the traditional table wines and super premium table wines. In market research samplings at the company’s Napa Valley headquarters, it was judged superior to various competing products. Sarah Sharpe, the financial vice president, must analyze this project, and then present her findings to the company’s executive committee. Production facilities for the new wine would be set up in unused section of Robert Montoya’s main plant. We will write a custom essay sample on Cash Flow Estimation and Risk Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page New machinery with an estimated cost of $2,200,000 would be purchased, but shipping costs to move the machinery to Robert Montoya’s plant would total $80,000, and installation charges would add another $120,000 to the total equipment cost. Furthermore, Robert Montoya’s inventories (the new product requires aging for 5 years in oak barrels made in France) would have to be increased by $100,000. This cash flow is assumed to occur at the time of the initial investment. The machinery has a remaining economic life of 4 years, and the company has obtained a special tax ruling that allows it to depreciate the equipment under the MACRS 3-year class life. Under current tax law, the depreciation allowances are 0. 33, 0. 45, 0. 15, and 0. 07 in Years 1 through 4 respectively. The machinery is expected to have a salvage value of $150,000 after 4 years of use. The section of the plant in which production would occur had not been used for several years and, consequently, had suffered some deterioration. Last year, as part of a routine facilities improvement program, $300,000 was spent to rehabilitate that section of the main plant. Earnie Jones, the chief accountant, believes that this outlay, which has already been paid and expensed for tax purposes, should be charged to the wine project. His contention is that if the rehabilitation had not taken place, the firm would have had to spend the $300,000 to make the plant suitable for the wine project. Robert Montoya’s management expects to sell $100,000 bottles of the new wine in each of the next 4 years, at a wholesale price of $40 per bottle, but $32 per bottle would be needed to cover cash operating costs. In examining the sales figures, Sharpe noted a short memo from Robert Montoya’s sales manager which expressed concern that the wine project would cut into the frim’s sales of other wines – this type of effect is called cannibalization. Specifically, the sales manager estimated that existing wine sales would fall by 5 percent if the new wine were introduced. Sharpe then talked to both the sales and production managers and concluded that the new project would probably lower the firm’s existing wine sales by $60,000 year, but, at the same time, it would also reduce production costs by $40,000 per year, all on a pre-tax basis. Thus, the net externality effect would be -$60,000 + $40,000 = -$20,000. Robert Montoya’s federal-plus-state tax rate is 40 percent, and its overall cost of capital is 10 percent, calculated as follows: WACC= Wd kd (1 – T) + Ws ks = 0. 5 (10%)(0. 6)+0. 5(14%) = 10% Now assume that you are Sharpe’s assistant and she has asked you to analyze this project, along with two other projects, and then to present your findings in a â€Å"tutorial† manner to Robert Montoya’s executive committee. As financial vice president. Sharpe wants to educate some of the other executives, especially the marketing and sales managers, in the theory of capital budgeting so that these executives will have a better understanding of capital budgeting decisions. Therefore, Sharpe wants you to ask and then answer a series of questions as set forth next. Keep in mind that you will be questioned closely during your presentation, so you should understand every step of the analysis, including any assumptions and weaknesses that may be lurking in the background and that someone might spring on you in the meeting. 1 Questions 1. Define the term â€Å"incremental cash flow. † Since the project will be financed in part by debt, should the cash flow statement include interest expenses? Explain. 2. Should the $300,000 that was spent to rehabilitate the plant be included in the analysis? Explain. 3. Suppose another winemaker had expressed an interest in leasing the wine production site for $300,000 a year. If this were true (in fact it was not), how would that information be incorporated into the analysis? 4. What is Robert Montoya’s Year 0 net investment outlay on this project? What is the expected no operating cash flow when the project is terminated at Year 4? (Hint: Use Table 1 as a guide) 5. Estimate the project’s operating cash flows. (Hint: Again use Table 1as a guide) What are the project’s NPV, IRR, modified IRR (MIRR), and payback?